Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State (HHS)
Introduction Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state (HHS) was formerly known as HyperOsmolar Non-Ketotic coma (HONK). HHS is a condition that occurs in patients who suffer from type 2 diabetes mellitus and have…
A patient with goitre
Hyperthyroidism (Thyrotoxicosis)
Introduction Thyrotoxicosis is the state produced by excessive thyroid hormone. It is not strictly the same thing as hyperthyroidism, as thyrotoxicosis can exist without hyperthyroidism being present – for example…
The pituitary gland
Hypopituitarism
Introduction Hypopituitarism entails reduced secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. Which hormones go first? Anterior pituitary hormones are affected in the following order:r GH >> muscle and bone FSH >> ovary LH >> testes Polactin >> breast TSH >> thyroid ACTH >> kidney…
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Introduction Hypothyroidism (aka myxoedema) is a common disorder which presents most frequently in women and the elderly. It can usually be managed in primary care without the need for specialist…
Blood sugar being tested with a glucometer. Note that this photo is from the USA and uses the units mg/dL, whereas in the UK and Australia the unit are mmol/L
Introduction to Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus (to be differentiated from diabetes insipidus, although mellitus is much more prevalent and thus referred to as commonly "diabetes") is a chronic state of hyperglycaemia caused by a lack…
Fundoscopy image (photo of the retina) showing changes of diabetic retinopathy. Note: hard exudates (scattered yellowish dots), microaneurysms (bulges off some blood vessels), and small hemorrhages (blurry red dots)
Monitoring and Complications of Diabetes
We treat diabetes to reduce the risk of the complications of diabetes. Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death of people with diabetes. So it is important to monitor…
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
Introduction MEN = the occurrence of several distinct syndromes featuring functional tumours of multiple endocrine glands. In some cases, tumours are malignant; in others, they are benign. MEN Tumours arising…
Anatomy of structures in the neck. This file is taken from wikimedia commons and is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Neck and Thyroid Exam
Introduction Examination of the neck is an important skills for assessing lumps and masses in the neck. Lumps in the neck are most commonly caused by the thyroid gland or…
Phaeochromocytoma
Introduction Phaeochromocytoma is a neuroendocrine tumour of the medulla of the adrenal glands. It secretes large quantities of the catecholamines noradrenaline, and to a lesser extent, adrenaline. Epidemiology Rule…
Physiology of Metabolism
IntroductionOnly 1% of pancreatic tissue is endocrine. This tissue is found in the Islets of langerhans. Surrounding the islets are adipose tissue deposits. The older you get, the more adipose…